CHAPTER 5
The Fearless Apostle of Acts
The book of Acts chronicles Paul’s transformation from a fierce opponent of the church to the foremost apostle to the Gentiles. In the narrative of Acts, Paul is larger than life, fearlessly proclaiming the gospel of Jesus Christ in region after region. Oblivious to pain and persecution, he pushes forward relentlessly. In his Letters, however, we see a more vulnerable side of Paul. His emotions are raw in some Epistles, and his words express frustration, anger, sarcasm, discouragement, and fear. How should we reconcile such details? Should we reconcile them? Determining what role Acts should play in a careful study of Paul is an important matter.
Although Paul’s Letters provide our closest glimpse of him as a man, Acts gives an indispensable description of his missionary journeys. Without the itinerary recounted in Acts, we would be at a loss to determine when Paul wrote his Letters. Consequently, as a means of becoming acquainted with his missionary endeavors, it is advantageous to read the Acts of the Apostles before studying Paul’s Epistles. This sequence raises certain difficulties, such as reconciling the heroic portrait of Paul in Acts with the emotional image of him that emerges from his Letters. Acts also provides a highly selective outline of Paul’s movements that needs to be supplemented with additional information from his Letters. In spite of such obstacles, however, the chronological framework given in Acts helps us make sense out of Paul’s Letters. In addition, Acts recounts reasons for some of the turmoil experienced by the early church because of Paul’s mission to the Gentiles.
WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE AUTHOR OF ACTS?
Uncertainty exists over the identity of the author of the Acts of the Apostles, although clearly the same man also wrote the Gospel of Luke. Luke and Acts combine to form a two-volume work (more accurately “two-scroll”) on Jesus’ ministry and on the development of the early church. The Gospel prologue (Luke 1:1–4) dedicates the book to Theophilus, who was probably the author’s literary patron—the one who paid the bills while he was researching and writing. Similarly, the prologue of Acts begins by addressing this same man: “In the first book, Theophilus, I wrote about all that Jesus did and taught.” Acts picks up the narrative where the Gospel account left off, describing the early Christian movement.
Although Luke and Acts are anonymous documents, there is a fairly strong tradition from the late second century that the physician Luke, Paul’s sometime traveling companion, is the author. One of the earliest claims for Luke’s authorship comes from a Christian leader named Irenaeus (ca. 180 CE), who says, “Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him” Heresies 3.1.1; Likewise the Muratorian Canon (a list of books found in Rome that many think dates back to about 200 CE) asserts the following: “The third Gospel book, that according to Luke. This physician Luke after Christ’s ascension, since Paul had taken him with him as an expert in the way (of the teaching), composed it in his own name according to (his)
Yet these sources were written a century after the composition of Acts, and mistakes could easily have been made in ascribing authorship to Luke. Irenaeus is accurate in some of his claims, but at times he declares as facts some rather odd assertions. For example, in Against Heresies 2.22.6, he states that Jesus was almost fifty years old when he was crucified. Some of the traditions passed on by Irenaeus and other second-century teachers go back to the early days of the church and represent authentic materials. Others do not. With the available evidence, we cannot positively say that Luke wrote Acts, but we can observe many details on how the author constructed his narrative. For convenience we will simply call the author Luke, bracketing for now the question of
The author of Acts was a well-educated man who worked comfortably with the literary conventions of his day when telling about the early His ability becomes immediately obvious in his prologues, which he wrote in a highly refined style of Greek prose. Yet he also has the ability to move easily from long and complicated sentences, which are typical of historical prologues of that time period, to a Greek vernacular that sounds very Semitic. When describing characters in a Jewish setting at the Jerusalem temple, for example, the story sounds as if it were spoken in Hebrew or Aramaic and translated literally into Greek. Such passages resemble the syntax often seen in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible made in Alexandria, Egypt, beginning about 250 BCE.
However, when Luke recounts events in Gentile settings, such as Paul’s speaking with philosophers in Acts 17, the language fits these settings (in this case sounding like what one would expect to hear in Athens). This aspect of his work resembles that of good novelists whose story characters speak in distinct patterns. For example, in a novel an author might have a Southerner speak with southern speech forms, whereas a character from New Jersey would speak with distinct northeastern idioms.
By patterning the language for the occasion, so that in one story the speech sounds like Septuagintal Greek while in another it is refined and highly rhetorical, Luke uses a Greco-Roman tradition that goes back at least to the historian Thucydides (ca. 472–395 BCE). In the History of the Peloponnesian Thucydides describes what later came to be a widely used literary technique among Greek and Roman authors that we call the historical Note carefully how he explains his method:
As to the speeches that were made by different men, either when they were about to begin the war or when they were already engaged therein, it has been difficult to recall with strict accuracy the words actually spoken, both for me as regards that which I myself heard, and for those who from various other sources have brought me reports. Therefore the speeches are given in the language in which, as it seemed to me, the several speakers would express, on the subjects under consideration, the sentiments most befitting the occasion, though at the same time I have adhered as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said. (1.22.1 [Smith, LCL])
Lucian, a second-century CE author, makes a similar comment in How to Write History 58: “If a person has to be introduced to make a speech, above all let his language suit his person and his subject” (LCL). In this way, ancient authors employed speeches in their stories as a means of giving their readers important information about the events they described. Thus, the person delivering a speech in the narrative was in fact speaking what the author wanted readers to know at that point in the account. But as Thucydides said, he also tried to report what he imagined that the speakers in his history should or would have said in the occasions he describes.
Ancient historians were moderately concerned with accuracy—within the information-gathering constraints of their time. Although the speeches in these history books may sound as if they are quotations of what the speakers literally said, the authors often did not personally hear these orations. Some they made up entirely. Some they loosely constructed on the basis of third-party accounts. Luke, as a man educated in the first century, naturally used this prevalent literary approach. Recognizing this historical practice helps us to interpret Acts responsibly and keeps us from asking absurd questions about where he got some of his information. For example, when we read abbreviated versions of discussions by members of the Sanhedrin (Acts 5:33–39) or governmental officials (25:13–22) where no Christians were present to hear the speakers, we will know not to speculate on how Luke got the transcript of what was said. He might simply have written what he believed that certain characters would have said in each situation.
THE EARLY CHURCH EXPLODES ONTO THE SCENE (ACTS 1–8)
Because of his commitment to the Pharisees’ messianic expectations, Saul of Tarsus violently opposed the idea of a crucified Messiah. But what about Jesus’ inner circle? What were the messianic expectations of Peter and the other followers of Jesus?
Prelude to Pentecost (Acts 1:1–26)
forty days after Jesus’ resurrection (1:3), what does the disciples’ question in 1:6 reveal about their expectations of what the Messiah should accomplish?
does Jesus’ answer in 1:7–8 reveal about his intent for their mission after his departure? Instead of military power, what sort of power will they receive to accomplish their mission?
The missionary movement in Acts largely follows the agenda set forth in 1:7–8, tracing the gospel’s progress from Jerusalem to Rome. Thus 1:7–8 provides a foreshadowing of coming events in the story.
Here are several details that will assist in understanding the story. The Sabbath day’s journey mentioned in 1:12 is a distance of about half a mile. Jewish teachers had established this distance as the maximum one could walk on the Sabbath day and not be guilty of working. A clever interpretation of Exodus 16:29 on the basis of Numbers 35:5 provides the rationale for specifying that a Sabbath’s day journey is about 2,000 cubits (= ½ mile; Mishnah, Sotah 5.3).
Jesus’ disciples, “together with certain women, including Mary the mother of Jesus, as well as his brothers” (1:14), gather in an upper room to pray and await the baptism of the Spirit. Peter quickly emerges as the leader of the Christian movement (1:15), and the early chapters of Acts focus on him. Most of the twelve apostles listed in 1:13–14 are not mentioned again by name in the narrative. Acts concentrates on a few major figures in the church and leaves untold the stories of the rest.
qualifications does Peter give for the apostle selected to replace Judas? What method do they use for selecting him?
This 1:50 scale-model reconstruction of the first-century Jerusalem temple complex is located by the Holyland Hotel, near Jeru salem. The courtyard around the central shrine provided a location for people to gather. (Courtesy of David Pettegrew)
book of Acts almost never calls Paul an apostle. How does 1:21–22 clarify why the author reserves this title for the Twelve?
Fiery Tongues from Above (Acts 2)
The large number of people who witness this event may well indicate that it happened in the temple (2:5–11)—which would fit Luke’s emphasis on the disciples spending substantial time in the temple precincts (Luke 24:52–53; Acts 3:1–11; 5:12, 25, 42).
This map shows the various countries (except for Rome) from which Jewish pilgrims came to Jerusalem for the feast of Passover.
on a map of the Mediterranean region where the Jews listed in 2:8–10 lived before coming to Jerusalem. How far have some of them journeyed to celebrate Pentecost?
Two different words in 2:5, 10 describe the circ*mstances of these Jews. The term “living” in 2:5 translates a participial form of the verb specifying permanent residence. In however, the word “visitors” in the phrase “visitors from Rome” translates a participial form of the verb which describes people dwelling in a land that is not their native country. Hence it can be translated “to sojourn” or “to live as a foreigner.” Also, “Jews” in 2:10 designates those who are Jews by birth, whereas “proselytes” indicates non-Jewish people who have become Jews by conversion.
Note that these people hear Jesus’ disciples praising God in their native languages (2:11), and the result is confusion (2:12). Not until Peter stands up to preach in a language they all understand (probably Greek, but possibly Aramaic) do they comprehend the significance of the event. The speaking in tongues in 2:4–12 functions not as a set of missionary proclamations but as praise to God in a host of different languages. This function of tongues resembles Paul’s own description in 1 Corinthians 12–14, which we will study later.
Comparing proclamations of the gospel in Acts with Paul’s teaching in his Letters can be an interesting study. Analyze the public address Peter gives in response to the charge by bystanders that those who are speaking in tongues are drunk.
are the main points of Peter’s speech in 2:14–36?
to 2:43–47, what characterized the early Christian movement in Jerusalem?
Growth Pains in the Early Church (Acts 3–5)
Peter and the other apostles continue to attend religious functions in the Jerusalem temple (3:1). Following Jesus Messiah does not separate them from their Jewish heritage.
healing of the lame man at the gate of the temple draws a crowd of confused people, somewhat like tongues did in Acts 2. How do the main points in Peter’s sermon in 3:12–26 compare with the main points in his sermon in 2:14–36?
The view expressed in 3:24 was typical among the early Christians. When Peter says, “All the prophets, as many as have spoken, from Samuel and those after him, also predicted these days,” he expresses their understanding that all of the Scriptures speak of the time of the end. This viewpoint partially explains why early Christians seldom paid close attention to the context of the biblical quotations they employed. They believed that all of the Scriptures were, as Paul says, “written down to instruct us, on whom the ends of the ages have come” (1 Cor. 10:11; see also 1 Cor. 7:29, 31; Rom. 13:12). Peter’s use of Scripture in Acts 1:20 (cf. Pss. 69:25; 109:8) and 2:17–21 (cf. Joel 2:28–32) and 2:25–28 (cf. Ps. 16:8–11) also shows the first-century Jews’ common lack of concern to understand the historical context of the passages they quoted. We will study this phenomenon further when dealing with Paul’s use of Scripture in his Letters.
Peter’s boldness in 4:8–12 sharply contrasts with his fearful denials in Luke 22:57–62. The Jewish leaders are amazed at his fearless proclamation of Jesus as the Christ, for they recognize that he is “uneducated” (4:13). Being uneducated by their definition does not necessarily mean that he could not read and write, but that he had not received the formal training of a scribe. A fisherman like Peter should not be able to debate successfully with the more educated Jewish leaders in Jerusalem.
As you read the early chapters of Acts, also notice the theme of predestination. When the disciples say in 4:28 that those who killed Jesus were doing “whatever your hand and your plan had predestined to take place,” they echo the theme that God is in control of the birth and expansion of the church. In 2:23 Peter said, “This man, handed over to you according to the definite plan and foreknowledge of God, you crucified and killed by the hands of those outside the law.” All had been foretold in the Scriptures; none of these things happened outside of God’s plan. As Jesus explained in Luke 24:44, “Everything written about me in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms must be fulfilled.”
Acts 4:32–37 we meet who will become a long-term traveling companion and partner in ministry with the apostle Paul. What does this passage tell about his background and personality?
Acts 3–5 what primary reasons contribute to the developing tension between the church and the synagogue?
Hellenistic Christians under Siege (Acts 6–7)
In the early days when the Christian movement was relatively small, the structure remained simple. Increased size brought the need for greater organization. It also multiplied sources for conflict.
dispute erupts among the early Christians, and how do the apostles deal with the problem?
seven deacons appointed in 6:5 all have Greek names, indicating that they were “Hellenists” (see 6:1). What does this detail indicate about the apostles’ strategy in appointing them to serve?
which Jews does Stephen come into conflict in Jerusalem, and what charges do they launch against him?
does Stephen’s speech in 7:2–53 demonstrate that God is not limited to the confines of the Jerusalem temple? How does his speech confirm for his adversaries the charge they brought against him in 6:13?
role does Saul of Tarsus play in Stephen’s death?
Driven from Jerusalem (Acts 8:1–40)
According to 8:1 the apostles did not leave Jerusalem during the persecution that scattered many Christians out of the city—which seems to indicate that they continued to attend temple functions. They apparently remained loyal to the laws of Moses and were not challenging the law and the temple as did Stephen.
Meanwhile, Philip begins to fulfill what Jesus said in 1:8, “You will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.” Yet the motivation for preaching to Samaritans comes not from planned outreach, but because persecution in Jerusalem drove him out of the city. Regardless of the motivation, however, Philip’s preaching was very unusual, given the long-standing animosity between Jews and Samaritans. For centuries these people had fostered ill will against each other, as illustrated in the story where Jesus asks the woman at the well for water in John 4:7. The narrator clarifies her shocked response by explaining in John 4:9 that “Jews do not share things in common with Samaritans.” Another example of this tension may be seen in Luke 9:54: in reaction to Samaritans refusing to provide lodging, James and John ask Jesus, “Lord, do you want us to command fire to come down from heaven and consume them?”
Samaritans respond positively to the gospel message preached by Philip, a Jewish Christian. When do they actually receive the Holy Spirit: before or after they are baptized?
As you continue to read through Acts, try to see if there is any set pattern with regard to when people receive the Holy Spirit. Later we will study what Paul says on this subject in his Letters.
TAKING THE GOSPEL TO THE GENTILES (ACTS 9–14)
Radical Reversal on the Road to Damascus (Acts 9:1–31)
In chapter 3, “Messianic Expectations Turned Upside Down,” we analyzed the account of Saul’s conversion, baptism, and early preaching ministry in Acts 9. Now we return to this account and notice the effects of his activities on the early Christian movement.
to Acts 9, Barnabas introduces Saul to the disciples at Jerusalem, who are skeptical about the former persecutor. What results from Saul’s preaching activities in Jerusalem?
Dirty Animals in a Clean Sheet
(Acts 9:32–11:18)
This section reveals much about the difficulties the early Christian leaders had with understanding and implementing Jesus’ words in Acts 1:8.
does the vision of the sheet full of animals help Peter to overcome his hesitation over dealing with Gentiles?
do the Gentiles at Cornelius’s house receive the Holy Spirit? How does this timing compare with when the Samaritans received the Spirit in 8:14–17?
the amazement of the Jewish Christians in 10:45 when they witness the Gentiles receiving the Spirit. When the other apostles in Jerusalem first hear about Peter’s activities among the Gentiles, how do they respond? What does their response reveal about the Jewish Christians’ beliefs concerning who was worthy of the salvation offered in Jesus Christ?
The Gospel Goes to the Gentiles
(Acts 11:19–14:28)
Christians coming from which two locations break with the normal policy of preaching only to Jews (11:19–20) and begin to preach the gospel also to the Gentiles at Antioch? (Find these places on the map.)
This map shows the regions in which Paul conducted his missionary journeys. By reading the account in Acts, you can plot his journeys.
Barnabas, who was appointed by Jerusalem apostles to oversee the Christians in Antioch, journeyed to Tarsus to recruit Saul to help him with the work of ministry (11:25–26). Later, about 47–48 CE, these two men, along with John Mark (12:25; 13:5), were called upon to depart on a missionary journey (13:1–3). On a map, trace their travels from Antioch to the island of Cyprus, to Perga on the coast of Pamphylia (where John Mark quit the team and returned to Jerusalem), to Pisidian Antioch, to Iconium, to Lystra, to Derbe, and back around through the towns to the coast at Attalia and by ship back to Syrian Antioch.
Acts 13–14, observe the pattern of where Barnabas and Paul go first when entering a new city. What sort of strategy do they seem to develop for their missionary work?
do the Jews predominantly reject the gospel message, and what actions do they take against Paul and Barnabas?
are the main ones who believe the gospel. What problems would the establishment of predominantly Gentile churches have for the Christian movement?
The God-fearers mentioned in 13:16 were Gentiles who were attracted to the high moral and ethical teaching, as well as the monotheism, proclaimed by Jewish elders in the synagogues. But they were unwilling to take on the full weight of the laws of Moses and become Jewish proselytes. Circumcision in particular was a major obstacle keeping them away from full participation with the Jewish community. Paul’s message of salvation by faith alone, that one can be part of God’s covenant community apart from circumcision, proved to be very attractive to these people. They heard the gospel gladly.
MAJOR DEBATE AS THE GOSPEL SPREADS TO GENTILES
(ACTS 15:1–18:22)
Fiery Argument in Jerusalem
(Acts 15:1–35)
The success of Paul and Barnabas’s missionary journey sparked strong opposition. Jewish Christians from Judea traveled to the Gentile churches to correct what they believed to be the false teaching of Paul and Barnabas (15:1). The resulting debate with Paul finally resulted in the Jerusalem council of 49 CE, a major meeting to decide what should be done about Gentile converts in the church (15:2–29).
At the council meeting, Pharisees continued to insist that Gentile converts should be circumcised and follow the laws of Moses. Notice in 15:7 that there was considerable debate. Nearly twenty years after the crucifixion of Jesus, the idea that God would welcome Gentiles was still a difficult concept for many Jewish Christians to accept.
finally settled the debate in favor of Paul and Barnabas?
compromise solution do the delegates reach in 15:20, and what does the explanation in 15:21 indicate about the reason behind the details of the compromise?
Determining the Will of God
Some individuals mistakenly think that early Christians did not wrestle as much as people do today with understanding and doing the will of God. They naively imagine that God regularly gave directions through visions, and so forth. However, in Acts 15 when the apostles struggle to make a major decision that affects the entire church, what steps do they follow before finally concluding what they accept to be God’s will pertaining to Gentiles obeying the laws of Moses? How could you apply these steps in your own experience of making major decisions in life?
was it wise to send Judas and Silas with Paul and Barnabas (15:22)?
Angry Apostles Go Separate Ways (Acts 15:36–16:40)
do Paul and Barnabas get angry with each other and part company at the beginning of the second missionary journey?
after winning the battle over not having to circumcise Gentile Christians, would Paul circumcise Timothy in 16:3?
A Long, Dusty Road
Calculate on a map the distance Paul, Silas, and Timothy walked across what today is the country of Turkey, being thwarted every time they tried to enter an area for evangelism. Not until they reach Troas on the Aegean coast does Paul receive direction in a vision (Acts 16:9–10). How long would you estimate such a journey would take?
When they tried to go southwest into the Roman province of Asia, they could not go on. So they tried to go north into Bithynia, and again their way was blocked (Acts 16:6–7). Given what you know about Paul at this point, how frustrating do you think these delays might have been for him? How frustrated would you be if you departed on a missionary journey of this length, only to be thwarted repeatedly?
“We” Passages in Acts
Periodically in the narration of Acts 16–28, the author writes in the first-person plural. Instead of describing the travels of Paul and his companions with the third-person “they,” he switches to “we.” In Acts 16:1–7, for example, the author describes the travels of Paul and Timothy, but suddenly in 16:10, he says, “When he had seen the vision, we immediately tried to cross over to Macedonia.” This detail seems to indicate that the author joined Paul at certain times and traveled with him for a while; and when the author described these journeys, he included himself in the story because he witnessed the events he recorded. Thus, in 16:10–16 the author seems to be part of the group, but from 16:18 to 20:4 the firstperson pronouns drop out. At 20:5 “we” resumes—“We sailed from Philippi …, and in five days we joined them in Troas”—and continues through their arrival in Jerusalem (see 20:13; 21:1, 7, 15). There is no further use of “we” until 27:1–28:16—the account of Paul’s sea voyage to Rome. After the sea voyage ceases at 28:17, the use of “we” vanishes from Acts.
The presence of these passages has played a significant role in scholars’ arguing that Paul’s sometime traveling companion Luke wrote Luke-Acts. Modern readers often appeal to the following passages as further evidence: Philemon 23–24 (“Epaphras … sends greetings to you, and so do Mark … and Luke, my fellow workers”); Colossians 4:14 (“Luke, the beloved physician, and Demas greet you”); and 2 Timothy 4:11 (“Only Luke is with me”). Vernon Robbins, however, argues that the “we” passages in Acts occur in the context of sea voyages, and he postulates that Luke’s use of “we” simply represents a well-established tradition of recounting sea voyages by using first-person
Robbins cites passages from a number of ancient Mediterranean documents and argues that the author of Acts was merely following a literary convention, not using the first-person style to describe events that he personally observed. One of the problems with this theory is that Acts 13:4–5, 13; 14:26; 15:39; and 18:18–21 mention sea voyages but do not use first-person pronouns. Furthermore, the “we” passages are not strictly limited to describing sea voyages. For example, whereas all of 16:10–17 uses “we,” only verse 11 speaks of sailing. The rest describes events in Philippi, which is not a seaport; and the story of Paul’s activities at Philippi continues through 16:18–40.
Further challenges to Robbins’s theory have arisen with respect to descriptions of sea voyages. S. M. Praeder, for example, has analyzed the narration styles of ancient Mediterranean stories and found more accounts of sea voyages recounted in third person than he found narrated in first Finding a pattern that provides the proper context for understanding Acts 16–28 remains a problem. A. J. M. Wedder-burn explains:
We have a number of Greek and Roman histories written by persons who had actually participated in at least some of the events which they described; examples like the histories of Thucydides, Julius Caesar and Josephus spring readily to mind. However, these writers mostly do not narrate those events in the first person, but in the third person, and speak even of their own actions in the third person…. If they use the first person at all it is in the introductions to their works (as is also the case in Luke 1,1–4 and Acts 1,1) or their conclusions or in comments on the events, not in the actual descriptions of the events themselves…. [And] whereas such historical writers say plainly who they are, mostly in the foreword to their work, … and that in the first person singular, not plural, the fact remains that the work which we have does not identify the author, and this is a surprising omission if he were in fact an eyewitness of, and a participant in, at least some of the events which he describes. Such coyness does not seem to match the conventions of ancient
Some creative attempts to unravel this problem of the “we” passages and the authorship of Acts have been attempted, but none has won a consensus among New Testament scholars.
At this time we simply do not know enough to give a definitive explanation for the presence of the “we” passages in Acts. Do they indicate the presence of eyewitness accounts at certain points, or do they represent a literary technique whose origin and purpose we do not yet understand? Fortunately, for our analysis of the portrait of Paul in Acts, we do not have to answer this question in order to proceed with our work. We can postpone a decision on this matter and continue our investigation of Paul’s second missionary journey.
Note that Lydia, the first convert in Philippi, comes from Thyatira (16:14), which is located in Asia, where Paul was forbidden to go in 16:6. In Acts, be aware of when Paul actually does missionary work in Asia.
owners of the slave girl at Philippi are furious over their loss of money. On an ethnic charge (“They are Jews”) they get Paul and Silas beaten and imprisoned. How do Paul and Silas turn this nasty situation into a redemptive occasion?
does Paul use his Roman citizenship to force an apology from the Philippian magistrates?
Fierce Opposition to the Gospel
(Acts 17:1–18:22)
At Thessalonica and Beroea, Paul continues to encounter intense opposition from Jewish opponents similar to what he experienced during his first missionary journey (17:1–15).
The Importance of Obscure Details
When Acts 18:12 specifies that the Jewish attack on Paul occurred when Gallio was proconsul, this minor detail provides a significant anchor for assigning approximate dates to various events during Paul’s missionary activities. Gallio, a son of the well-known Spanish rhetorician Marcus Annaeus Seneca, was the younger brother of Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the famous Stoic philosopher. He did not serve long as proconsul (his brother wrote in Moral Epistles 104.1 that he had to leave Achaia because of a fever). An inscription found at Delphi states that the emperor Claudius appointed Gallio as proconsul of Achaia in the year 51 (probably by July 1).
By working backward from this date, we can estimate when Paul started his second missionary journey, that the Jerusalem council of Acts 15 occurred in approximately 49, that the first missionary journey took place in 47–48, and so forth. By working forward from this date, we can assign approximate dates to the third missionary journey and the times when he wrote most of his Letters. Sometimes small details have major implications in biblical scholarship.
The Temple of Zeus in Athens was enormous. Note the size of the person in the foreground. The Acropolis, with the Parthenon, is in the background. (Courtesy of Michael Cosby)
does the content of Paul’s speech to the philosophers at Athens (17:22–31) differ from the sermons he proclaims in the synagogues?
In 49 the emperor Claudius expelled all Jews from Rome because of rioting in the Jewish sectors. As we will see when we study Romans, these riots apparently resulted when Christians tried to evangelize their fellow Jews. Aquila and Priscilla (18:2) seem to have been Christians before Paul met them, and they became his long-term friends.
remained at Corinth for eighteen months (18:11), during which time he had considerable success among Gentiles. Why does Gallio, who was proconsul of Achaia in 51, refuse to condemn Paul?
a map follow the route Paul took on the return to his home church at Syrian Antioch (18:18–22). Approximately how many miles was this sea voyage?
IMPRISONED FOR HIS EFFORTS
(ACTS 18:23–22:29)
Sweating across Asia
(Acts 18:23–19:41)
does Paul’s journey in 18:23 and 19:1 differ from the route taken at the beginning of his second missionary expedition in 16:6–8?
The fact that Paul encounters a group of John the Baptist’s disciples in Ephesus (19:1–4) in approximately 52 reveals how influential the Baptist’s ministry was. It also shows how slowly news traveled in the ancient world, for these disciples had not yet heard the good news about Jesus.
how and when the disciples of John receive the Holy Spirit (19:1–7). How does this timing compare with that experienced by the Samaritans (8:14–17) and those in Cornelius’s household (10:44)?
two years Paul proclaims Jesus Christ to those in a lecture hall in Ephesus. What causes the riot in 19:23–41? What does this detail reveal about the effectiveness of Paul’s preaching?
The spectacular theater at Ephesus seated 25,000 people and is still used for concerts today. Acts 19:28–41 describes a two-hour riot that occurred in the Ephesus theater, resulting from Paul’s effective preaching and the resulting loss of revenue by silversmiths. (Courtesy of Michael Cosby)
A Long Journey and a Lethal Sermon (Acts 20:1–21:14)
Using the narrative in this section and a map, trace Paul’s voyages for the duration of his third missionary journey.
Acts 20:1–21:14, Christians repeatedly warn Paul against going to Jerusalem. How does he respond to their concerns?
long-winded sermon at Miletus proves to be deadly (20:7–12). What does the speech in 20:18–35 emphasize about the apostle Paul?
Violence in the Holy City
(Acts 21:15–22:29)
are the Jerusalem apostles hesitant about Paul’s coming to town?
do the apostles tell Paul about the attitude of Christians in Jerusalem toward the laws of Moses?
does Paul’s participation in the purification ritual in the temple reveal about his own relationship to Jewish customs and the Mosaic law? How does his action stand in tension with his belief about Gentiles and the law?
causes the riot during which Paul is beaten by the Jews and finally arrested by the Romans?
Paul’s speech in 22:1–21, the Jews listen attentively to his story until what point?
Note how Paul begins his speech by emphasizing his faithfulness to Mosaic law as a means of getting a sympathetic hearing. He also says that Ananias, a devout Jew, was sent to restore his sight, and that he received God’s commission to go to the Gentiles while he was in the Jerusalem temple (22:17).
does Paul’s Roman citizenship again come to his aid when he is arrested?
BUSTED AND DEPORTED
(ACTS 22:30–28:31)
“We Hate His Guts!”
(Acts 22:30–24:27)
his trial before the Sanhedrin, how does Paul gain the support of the Pharisees on the council? (22:30–23:10)
nephew warns the Roman tribune of the Jewish plot to murder Paul (23:16–22), and the tribune sends Paul to Caesarea to stand trial. Locate Antipatris on a map (23:31). How far did they travel the first night from Jerusalem? What does this distance tell you about the endurance of Roman soldiers?
the letter from Claudius Lysias to Felix, what is his assessment of Paul’s guilt or innocence?
Felix, the governor of Judea, was a freedman known for brutality. Tacitus, a Roman historian, says that “he practiced every kind of cruelty and lust, wielding the power of a king with all the instincts of a slave” 12.54). He ruled over Judea from about 52 to 59 CE, and his arrogant and brutal treatment of Jewish people finally resulted in the emperor removing him from office.
the way the orator Tertullus begins his speech in 24:2–9. How does he seek to gain a sympathetic hearing from Felix?
does Felix keep Paul in prison for two years? What does this treatment tell you about the legal system?
“I Appeal to the Emperor”
(Acts 25–26)
Nero appointed Porcius Festus to be procurator of Judea in 60 CE. A Roman procurator served as a personal agent of the emperor, and in small provinces like Judea they functioned like governors. In the larger imperial provinces, they served under provincial governors as overseers of revenue (chief financial officers). The little we know about Festus comes from Acts 25–26; Josephus, Antiquities 20.182–197; and War 2.271. According to Josephus, Festus was more honest and a better administrator than either his predecessor or successor. Apparently he died while in office in 61 or 62, but during his time as ruler he quickly eliminated a number of lawless elements, especially the the dagger men. (According to Acts 21:38, the Roman tribune connected Paul with the thinking he was one of these assassins.)
Upon Festus’s coming into Judea, it happened that Judea was afflicted by the robbers, while all the villages were set on fire, and plundered by them. And then it was that the as they were called, who were robbers, grew numerous. They made use of small swords, not much different in length from the Persian but somewhat crooked, and like the Roman sicae [or as they were called; and from these weapons these robbers got their name; and with these weapons they slew a great many; for they mingled themselves among the multitude at their festivals, when they were come up in crowds from all parts to the city to worship God, as we said before, and easily slew those that they had a mind to slay…. So Festus sent forces, both horsem*n and footmen, to fall upon those that had been seduced by a certain impostor, who promised them deliverance and freedom from the miseries they were under, if they would but follow him as far as the wilderness. Accordingly those forces that were sent destroyed both him that had deluded them, and those that were his followers also. 20.8.10 [Thackeray, LCL])
Remains of this theater at Caesarea are smaller than the one at Ephesus. Herod the Great built a spectacular harbor and city, some of the remains of which may still be seen. Imagine watching a performance in this theater with the Mediterranean Sea as the backdrop. (Courtesy of Michael Cosby)
Festus sought the good favor of the Jewish ruling elite, and eliminating the sicarii was one thing that endeared him to them. The account in Acts 25 indicates that he responded quickly to their request to try Paul. Paul had Roman law on his side, for he had done nothing to deserve imprisonment; yet on the practical level, Roman procurators were often perfectly willing to let the social elite have their way as a means of gaining their cooperation. Mediterranean cultures often function on the basis of doing favors and expecting favors in return, and Paul was well aware of how the system worked. Festus would be tempted to get rid of a problem lingering from his predecessor’s rule.
After spending two years in jail (24:27), Paul soon realizes that Festus intends to deliver him to the Jews. So Paul exercises his right as a Roman citizen to have his case heard before Caesar. Festus was responsible to send a document with him, describing the charges that merited the emperor taking the time to hear the case. Because he did not fully understand the case against Paul, he ran the risk of causing the emperor to question his competence. Festus therefore requested Agrippa, a local dignitary who had come to pay a visit, to help him with the situation.
Herod Agrippa II, the son of Agrippa I, the great-grandson of Herod the Great, lived from 27 to 100. Agrippa grew up in Rome in Claudius’s court, and the emperor liked him. In 50 Claudius named Agrippa king over this young man’s native region northeast of Judea, and in 53 he updated his former decision and made Agrippa ruler over an expanded version of Herod Philip’s former area (the emperor Nero enlarged his rule in 56 to include part of Galilee). Because Agrippa was well liked by Claudius, if his name were included in the letter that Festus had to send to the emperor, this connection would help to make him look good to his superior.
Accompanying Agrippa was his younger sister, Bernice. She had previously married her uncle, but he died in 48, so she moved to her brother’s estate. Rumors spread that she was living incestuously with her brother, so she married Polemon, king of Cilicia, in 63. This marriage of convenience was a bad one, and after only three years she returned to live with Agrippa. During the Jewish war with Rome, Bernice became the mistress of Titus, the Roman general in charge of the war. When he returned to Rome, she accompanied him, which caused quite a scandal that he was living with a Jew and even wanted to marry her. Roman anti-Semitism was so strong that Titus later dismissed Bernice because her presence hindered his political aspirations.
addressing the gathering of important people (see 25:23), Paul seeks to demonstrate his innocence and emphasize the divine nature of his calling. What else does he seek to accomplish in his speech?
does Agrippa conclude after listening to Paul’s defense?
Slow Boat to Rome (Acts 27–28)
The sea voyage recounted in Acts 27 represents the most sustained use of elegant Greek prose in all of Luke-Acts. Luke’s more classical Greek in this account probably results from the fact that stories of sea voyages were popular in Greek and Roman literature and tended to be told in certain ways. Heroes like Odysseus in the Odyssey go on sea voyages, but such material is not limited to fiction. Historians recount such stories as well (e.g., Thucydides’ History of the Pelopponesian War 2.6.26; 8.24.31; etc.; and Herodotus’s Persian Wars 3.138; 7.188). Luke, as a literary man of the first century, patterns his language to fit the genre.
On a map trace Paul’s journey from Caesarea to Rome, noting from the places mentioned that ancient sailors often kept fairly close to the coastline as a safety precaution. Winter travel for sailboats on the Mediterranean is treacherous, and after a certain time in the fall, sailors remain in a port until spring.
On this map, plot the perilous sea journey that Paul experienced on his way to Rome.
have a better place to spend the winter, the captain ignores Paul’s warning not to leave Fair Havens on the island of Crete (27:9–12). The resulting disaster of being driven out to sea by a northeasterly wind dearly costs the ship, its crew, and passengers. On the map calculate the distance from Crete to the island of Malta, where they come ashore. In what activities is Paul engaged during the three months on the island?
On the map trace Paul’s journey from Malta to Rome the next spring. Note that there are already Christians in Rome and the surrounding countryside (28:14–15), and they seem to know something about Paul. Remember that Priscilla and Aquila were expelled from Rome, according to 18:2.
sort of reception does Paul receive from the Jews when he arrives at Rome? Do they seem to know about him already, or do they learn about him from his own words?
what conditions does Paul live for his two years in Rome?
The conclusion of Acts leaves Paul’s fate uncertain. It does not specify whether he was released or executed after the two years. Remember, however, that Lysias (23:29), Festus (25:25), and Agrippa (26:31) all concluded that Paul had done nothing deserving death or imprisonment. The main point the closing chapter makes is that Paul freely preached the gospel during his time of captivity in Rome. Later, as we study the last Epistles attributed to Paul, we will consider whether he was released and made further missionary journeys, or whether he was executed under Roman law.
Portrait of Paul in Acts
what portrait of the apostle Paul does Acts paint? Page through Acts and notice details that are particularly significant. Then list the main characteristics of the apostle in Luke’s account.
GLOSSARY
Barnabas. Significant leader in the early church. He was from the island of Cyprus and belonged to the tribe of Levi. For years he was a coworker with Paul.
God-fearers. Gentiles who were attracted to Jewish teaching about God and moral living but were unwilling to become proselyte Jews because of the requirements of keeping the laws of Moses and being circumcised. These people formed an important core of Paul’s Gentile converts to Christianity.
Historical speech. A widely used literary technique in which Greek and Roman authors composed speeches so as to sound like what the character in a narrative would have said under the conditions given in the story. This writing technique goes back at least to the historian Thucydides (ca. 472–395 BCE), who included many speeches in his History of the Peloponnesian
Procurator. Roman procurators served as personal agents of the emperor, and in small provinces like Judea they functioned like governors. In the larger imperial provinces, they served under provincial governors as overseers of revenue (chief financial officers).
Proselytes. People who leave one form of belief to become members of another religious faith. For example, when polytheistic Romans converted to Judaism and sought to keep the laws of Moses, they became proselyte Jews.
Sicarii. Jewish zealots who were assassins. They were called sicarii (“dagger men”; see Acts 21:38) because of the daggers they used to murder people. Their tactic was to mingle among crowds during festivals, stab prominent citizens in the back, and then disappear into the crowd.
Thucydides. Greek historian who lived about 472–395 BCE. In his History of the Peloponnesian Thucydides implemented what later came to be a widely used literary technique among Greek and Roman authors that we call historical This technique of having characters in a story serve as mouthpieces to express what the author wants to say at key points in the narrative is used frequently in the Acts of the Apostles.
“We” passages. Passages in Acts where the narration is set in first-person plural form: “We …” There is debate over whether these indicate where the author actually joined Paul on his missionary journeys, or whether they are simply part of a literary technique used to describe ancient sea voyages.
FURTHER READING ON THE BOOK OF ACTS
Barrett, C. K. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994. Technical work. Good resource.
Bruce, F. F. Commentary on the Acts of the NICNT. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954. Semi-technical work. Readable. Dated.
Chance, J. Bradley. The Acts of the Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2007. Uses more engaging format than normal commentaries. Has pictures and colorful sidebars.
Dunn, James D. G. The Acts of the Narrative Bible Commentaries. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1996. Good source of information about authorship, themes, date of writing, and purpose of Acts.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Acts of the AB. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Technical, demanding commentary in a well-established series.
Gasque, W. Ward. A History of the Criticism of the Acts of the Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1975. Survey of scholarship on Acts up to 1975. Explains the interpretive questions with which scholars grapple.
Gaventa, Beverly R. The Acts of the Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003. Clear and understandable.
González, Justo L. Acts: The Gospel of the Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001. Social analysis/commentary by a Latin American author. Reflections on the implications of the message of Acts.
Haenchen, Ernst. The Acts of the Apostles: A Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971. Influential commentary in its day. Haenchen was skeptical of the historicity of most of Acts.
Hengel, Martin. Acts and the History of Earliest Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978. Hengel contrasts with Haenchen with respect to his assessment of the historicity of Acts.
Johnson, Luke Timothy. The Acts of the Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1992. Thorough. Good for close, exegetical analysis.
Levine, Amy-Jill, and Marianne Blickenstaff, eds. A Feminist Companion to the Acts of the New York: T&T Clark International, 2004. A collection of essays about the women in Acts.
Marshall, I. Howard. The Acts of the Apostles: An Introduction and Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982. In part seeks to refute Haenchen and assert the historicity of Acts. Fairly readable.
Porter, Stanley E. Paul in Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2001. Literary analysis. Good resource for comparing the portrait of Paul in Acts with the portrait of Paul that emerges from his own letters.
Robbins, Vernon K. “By Land and by Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages.” Biblical Research 20 (1975): 5–18. Also in Perspectives on Edited by Charles Talbert. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1978. Argues that ancient sea-voyage accounts used first-person plural pronouns (“we” passages in Acts are not evidence that the author joined Paul at various times and used “we” when describing these events).
Talbert, Charles H. Reading Acts: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Acts of the New York: Crossroad, 1997. Good literary analysis of Acts.
Witherington, Ben, III. The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998. Explores sociological and rhetorical dimensions of Acts. Helps readers see its stories in light of ancient Mediterranean thought and cultural practices.
Footnotes
Translation from New Testament vol. 1, Gospels and Related rev. ed., ed. E. Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 43.
We also will not explore other difficult historical issues at this stage. Some scholars, such as Ernst Haenchen Acts of the Apostles [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971]), relentlessly subject every story in Acts to intense historical scrutiny, speculating on what really happened and what did not. Such investigations lie beyond the scope of this study. Our goal now is to observe carefully the portrait of the early church in Acts, to see what the author says about the early Christians and about Paul’s missionary activities. Until we carefully interact with the text on its own terms, seeking to see its message, we are not ready to explore multiple issues pertaining to historicity. In this regard, our approach matches what we did in the last chapter when reading the Hellenistic miracle stories, mystery religion initiation stories, and so forth. Our concern is to focus on deciphering the beliefs of the authors and then to ponder the implications of these beliefs. Hard-core historical analysis is a stage beyond our purpose at this point.
Lively debates center on these questions, and commentaries on Acts forcefully argue various perspectives. Although these matters are important in their own right, exploring them now would sidetrack our particular study. The approach taken in this book is to read Acts in light of what ancient historians explained about their craft, and not to agonize over the identity of the author of Acts, when exactly he wrote, or the accuracy of every story he recounts. Our concern is more with understanding his portrait of Paul and the early church. In this regard understanding more about his writing style also proves to be helpful.
See Bruce W. Winter, The Book of Acts in Its Ancient Literary vol. 1, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1993). Also, Henry J. Cadbury’s The Making of Luke-Acts (London: Allenson, 1958) remains an important study on these issues.
The NIV incorrectly places “visitors” in Acts 2:11.
V. K. Robbins, “By Land and by Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages,” in Perspectives on ed. Charles H. Talbert (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1978), 215–42.
S. M. Praeder, “The Problem of First Person Narration,” in Novum Testamentum 29 (1987): 193–218.
A. J. M. Wedderburn, “The ‘We-Passages’ in Luke Acts: On the Horns of a Dilemma,” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 93 (2002): 81. See also Praeder, “Problem of First Person Narration,” 208: “If Acts is a first person ancient history, then it is alone in its lack of first person singular participation.”
